Mesopotamian architecture

Conditions for the emergence and development of architecture in Mesopotamia.

Geographic conditions. Mesopotamia is a civilization of the Ancient World that existed in the Middle East, in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.  Unlike the Nile, which flooded relatively predictably, the floods of the Tigris and Euphrates depended on precipitation and rising water levels in the mountain rivers flowing into them, making it very difficult to predict floods. For this reason, elevated places were chosen for construction or they were created artificially.

The region of Mesopotamia turned out to be open to the invasions of various tribes and peoples, and this caused the weakening of small state formations, the spasmodic nature of the development of civilization, the mixing and mobility of the ethnic composition. At the same time, the threat of aggression from neighbors and nomads, the high activity of external relations led to the early emergence of cities as defensive points, craft and cult centers.

Climatic conditions. Sharp temperature fluctuations, hot summers and high levels of humidity in the south, severe and frosty winters in the north determined the nature of the location of structures and their internal organization.

Conditions for the choice of material. The main building materials were clay, reed, bitumen. Stone and wood were brought from the north, therefore they were expensive and were used relatively rarely. The stone was used for facing, sculpture, memorial obelisks. The wood was used for floors, which were arranged in the form of a continuous roll and was used for joinery. In the south, wood (imported) was used only in rich buildings. The treeless river valleys and the absence of stone led to the use of reeds and clay in construction, from which adobe brick was made – the most common building material in this area. Raw brick (10X20X30, and later 10X31X34cm) was laid either dry without mortar or on clay mortar mixed with ash and bitumen. Bitumen, whole lakes of which were located in Mesopotamia – a fraction of oil – was used to consolidate soils against landslides, for asphalt floors, waterproofing, and painting. Fired brick was used only for facing.

For the same purpose, clay and alabaster plasters, mosaics, glazed bricks and tiles were used.

Religious conditions. The people of Mesopotamia worshiped heavenly bodies and the forces of nature. Here, the boundaries between state power and cult were almost erased, this was reflected in the architecture of the most important monumental structures that unite palaces and temples. Burial structures played a much smaller role in the architecture of Mesopotamia, since its inhabitants did not associate the achievement of immortality with the preservation of the body of the deceased.

Socio-political conditions. For the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, as well as in Egypt, the basis of the economy was irrigated agriculture and cattle breeding, which required the concentration of economic and human resources and the centralization of management. The royal power was unlimited and cruel. Advances in construction and architecture in Mesopotamia are attributed to the high level of culture.

Historical periods of Mesopotamia and major buildings:

1) Archaic or Sumerian-Akkadian (ΙV – II millennium BC) – the temple in Eridu, the White temple in Uruk, the temple in Tell-Ukair, the “Red building” in Uruk, Temple in Tel el-Obeid, tomb of Queen Shubad and King Abarga.

2) Old Babylonian (II millennium – I millennium BC) – a palace in the city of Mari.

3) Assyrian (I millennium – VII BC) Temple of Anu and Adad in Ashur, ziggurat in Dur-Sharrukin, Sargon’s Palace in Dur-Sharrukin, Ashurbanipal’s Palace, Tukulti-Ninurta palace.

4) New Babylonian period (VII-VI centuries BC) Temple of Anu and Antu in Uruk, Gate of the goddess Ishtar, temple of Marduk, ziggurat of Eteminanki, ziggurat of Euriminanki, Nebuchadnezzar’s palace, “Hanging Gardens of Babylon”.

The main features of the architecture of Mesopotamia:

Urban planning:

1) Economical use of the territory;

2) Fortified cities – the city grew inside the ring walls;

3) Development of building up the city around the center – a temple or a palace;

4) Irregular city planning;

5) High building density;

6) Vertical development of housing architecture – multi-storey buildings for ordinary people;

Architectural character:

7) The monumentality of temple structures;

8) Lack of curved elements;

9) Dominance of structures over the landscape due to their elevation to the terraces;

10) Ziggurat as the main monumental building;

11) The wall is the leading architectural theme;

12) Strict, linear rhythm of niches and protrusions;

13) Lack of freestanding support;

14) Vaulted ceilings (often false)

15) Jagged completion of the outer walls;

16) Polychrome architecture, especially in the later period.

Basic types of structures:

• The wallswere built from adobe bricks. The binding solution was liquid clay, bitumen. Brickwork could be done raw – a row of raw was placed on a row of dry bricks.
• The vaultwas built without circles. Therefore, domed, box, fake vaults were common.
• Foundation. Foundations were not laid in Mesopotamia. Instead of them, a platform was erected, it was the basis of the structure, taking its weight and protecting it from flooding.

The main periods of the history of Mesopotamia:

1) Archaic or Sumerian-Akkadian (ΙV – II millennium BC). This period is characterized by the emphasized massiveness of buildings, the emergence of the basic compositional principles of solving masses and spaces, a rather restrained use of the means of the visual arts.

The main type of monumental religious architecture at that time was the temple on the platform. The sanctuary of the temple, the seat of the deity, was at the top of the platform, where stairs or ramps led. By the 3rd millennium BC, access to all parts of the temple was free; later, only a select few were allowed into the sanctuary. Among the main function of the temple was the disposal of the earthly property of God. Gradually, the temple administration began to play a major role in organizing the economic activities of society, in particular, handicrafts. The temple’s wealth was used as a public fund for sacrifices, for exchange with neighboring communities, and in case of war or natural disaster. The temples also provided material support for the activities of the people’s assembly, the reception of guests of the community, as well as the activities of specialist administrators.

The temple in Eridu is an example of a temple from this period. It is located on a high platform with ramps on both sides. The cella of the temple is shifted to the edge of the platform, with an open courtyard inside. The temple is almost not decorated. The only element that destroys the solidity of its perception is the dismemberment of the facades with vertical niches.

Over time (until the end of the 3rd millennium BC), the temple on the platform evolved to the form of a ziggurat.

Ziggurat is a multi-tiered, stepped temple tower on a platform. It reflected the idea of unlimited power over man and symbolized the staircase to heaven, as an attempt to close the distance between man and heaven.

In a country where religion was the cult of heavenly bodies, scientific thought was intertwined with religious thought, respectively, the ziggurat also served as a temple and an observatory.

The ziggurats of the Sumerian-Akkadian period had three tiers.

Features of the ziggurat:

1) Was located in the city center and occupied a dominant position;

2) Was guided by the cardinal points;

3) Rectangular at the base;

4) The presence of a front entrance;

5) Using curvature to create optical illusions;

6) The tiers in the form of truncated pyramids had no premises and the sanctuary was located only at its highest platform;

7) The presence of the lower temple at the foot of the structure;

8) The ramps and stairs that led to the sanctuary were reduced perpendicular to the structure or along its edges;

9) Colour highlighting of each tier;

10) Landscaping of terraces.

An example of such a structure is the ziggurat of King Ur-Nammu in Ur. It had a height of more than 20 m. Three powerful volumes, tapering towards the top, ended in a small sanctuary, where three giant straight stairs lead. Its structure was emphasized by colours: the lower tier was black, the middle one was white, and the upper one was red. The sloping walls were dissected by flat niches for the play of light and shadow, softening the impression of the massive structure.

The shape of the ziggurat is somewhat reminiscent of the shape of the stepped pyramid and the pyramid of Mesoamerica. Such a different origin and a similar result are probably achieved by the parallelism of evolution.

Old Babylonian (II millennium – I millennium BC). Architectural and artistic design in the Old Babylonian period was based on the old Sumerian canons, although the cult ensembles themselves acquired greater proportionality and stylistic expressiveness. The enrichment of traditional means with new forms of fortification art, palace and temple architecture, an emphasis on the methods of transverse development of space, etc. was observed. At that time, the palace became the dominant architectural form next to the ziggurat.

The palaces of this period were more like isolated cities of a fortified character with a rather complex layout.

Features of palace buildings:

1) Impressive size, a large number of rooms;

2) Accentuation of the main entrance;

3) Asymmetrical arrangement of palace premises and courtyards;

4) Availability of functional zoning;

5) Availability of amenities: baths, training rooms.

Assyrian (I millennium – VII BC) – crystallization of the basic principles of solving the masses and the formation of spatial compositions in the architecture of Assyria is characteristic. Through the aggressive and militaristic nature of the state, fortified cities, which already had a regular layout, were being actively built. Assyria possessed stone, forest, ore, which changed its architectural character. The main types of structures at this time: ziggurats, fortified palaces.

The ziggurats of this period, unlike the Sumerian ones, become seven-tiered. There could be several of them dedicated to various deities. Sometimes they even doubled.

Assyrian palaces were elongated structures with an entrance loggia between towers or parts of the wall on the longitudinal side and with a space oriented across.

On the sides of the entrance, there were figures of shedu – bulls with a human head and five legs, to create the illusion of movement for a person passing by. This was due to the protective function of these sculptural figures.

The first floor was characterized by the absence of windows, hiding residents from prying eyes.

The facing of structures with orthostats was actively used. In Assyrian architecture, there is a close connection between sculpture and color.

The royal palaces and parks had pavilions, being located on a dais, they opened a panorama of the local landscape.

A typical Assyrian dwelling house had a double terrace: one – the lower one – for protection from direct sunlight, the other was a kind of garden: consisted of a thick layer of ground, watered and covered with vegetation.

A striking example of Assyrian is the Sargon Palace in Dur-Sharrukin. It was located on an artificial brick terrace. It consisted of three parts: 1) the seraglio, which included the palace itself, the male part, reception halls (about 60 rooms and 10 courtyards), 2) the harem, where the owner and his family lived; 3) utility and office premises located around a huge courtyard.

On the western side of the terrace there was an observatory temple. The lower part of the wall is lined with alabaster tiles, which could be painted. In the upper part there was a frieze of coloured enamel bricks.

New Babylonian period (VII – VI centuries BC)

Features:

1) Construction of the city according to a single plan;

2) Regular street layout, clear outline of the city;

3) High level of improvement;

4) Creation of multidimensional compositions;

5) The growth of decorative tendencies, the widespread use of means of fine art, ornamental motives in architecture;

6) The systematic use of fired bricks.

The gate of goddess Ishtar (goddess of wisdom, fertility, carnal love and war) is one of the eight double gates of Babylon. Formed by two large inner and two smaller outer towers. They were faced with blue glazed bricks and friezes with animal bas-reliefs, created from the relief masonry, which symbolized the protection and prosperity of the city. Lions are raised to eye level and placed in a rhythmic sequence as symbols of pride and the mighty power of rulers. The gates are also decorated with bulls and Mesopotamian dragons – creatures with the head of a snake, the body of a lion, eagle hind limbs and a scorpion sting instead of a tail.

The ziggurat of Eteminanki (the home of the foundations of heaven and earth) is associated with the famous Tower of Babel, probably was its prototype. There are several reconstructions of this building, which reproduce its architecture in different ways. The tower most likely had a square base, the length of each side is about 90 m.The height of the tower also reached 90 m.It is believed that the first tier was 30 m high, the second – 18, the third, fourth and fifth – 6 m each, the sixth – 9 m, the seventh – the sanctuary of Marduk – 15 m. Seven tiers symbolized the number of planets. The tiers were alternately symbolic in color: black, red, blue, purple, white, silver and gold. Above was the sanctuary, which had a blue lining. It housed the chambers of the god Marduk with a golden bed. The blue lining of the temple merged with the heavenly blue, which further enhanced the idea of ​​the merging of heaven and earth. The central staircase was probably straight, the rest – spiral, built along the tier.

Nebuchadnezzar’s palace consisted of the southern part – a fortification with five courtyards on one axis, a huge and pompous throne room, and the northern part, separated by a city wall, also fortified, where the so-called museum was located – a place for storing trophies and works of art. The palace had a pronounced serf character. The walls of the rooms and courtyards were abundantly covered with tiled decorations. The most important part of the palace was the throne room, where the king met with ambassadors and received gifts from his subjects with appropriate ceremonies. It corresponded to the celle, the sanctuary of the temple where the deity sits. The throne was even placed where the elevation in the cella was. In Nebuchadnezzar’s palace in Babylon, the throne was facing the entrance.

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were probably located in the northeastern part of Nebuchadnezzar’s palace. Little is left of them – only some parts of the basement. The structure exists in reconstructions, therefore, absolute accuracy, as in the case of the Eteminanki ziggurat, is out of the question. The discussion in scientific circles about its location has not yet been completed.

Probably, in the plan, it was a quadrangular four-storey building, raised to a height of 25 m, which from the northern and eastern parts grew in a row of vaulted rooms directly from the walls of the palace. The ground part could be placed on strong pillars or walls, above which there were stone slabs, a layer of brick, bitumen, covered with a thick layer of earth where the garden vegetation was planted. The irrigation system was centered around a water-lifting wheel or pumping system.