Architecture of Ancient Rome

From the 3rd century BC, the center of political and economic life moved from Ancient Greece to Ancient Rome. Rome became the heir to the culture of Greece. Rome was always a state. And its starting point begins in 451 BC. – A law called “On 12 tables”, civil legislation, was adopted. Rome was originally formed as the world’s first legal state. The Greeks created the mythology and poetics of art, they created ideas that still exist, and the Romans created the state and laws.

Geographic conditions. The coastline of Italy, despite the long and narrow shape of this peninsula, is much less indented by bays or natural harbors than the coast of Greece. Italy does not have an abundance of islands. Although much of the country is very mountainous, due to the main direction of the main mountain range, the Apennines, stretching from one end of the peninsula to the other, Italy, like Greece, is not fragmented into small valleys, separated from each other by mountains.

Hence the following difference in the character and fate of the Greek and Roman peoples.

1. A) The Romans were never seafarers and their colonial activity was of a completely different nature than that of the Greeks;
2. B) The absence in antiquity of sharp rivalry between the Italian cities, which guarded their independence less zealously than the Greek ones, made possible the rise of Rome by absorbing neighboring states, which Athens or Sparta did not succeed in.

Due to its geographical location, Italy served as an intermediary in the spread of art and culture throughout Europe.

Conditions for choosing materials. Italy in its geological structure differs significantly from Greece, where the main and almost the only building material was marble. In Italy, in addition to marble, other different types of stone, as well as brick and terracotta, were widely used even for the construction of the most important structures. In Rome, the following materials were at hand: travertine – hard limestone from Tivoli, tuff, which makes up most of the mountains surrounding Rome, piperina, which was mined in the Albanian mountains and pozzolana. All these materials, except the first, are of volcanic origin. The country also had an abundance of gravel and sand of extraordinary quality. Pozzolan is an earthy substance that occurs in thick layers around Rome. The Romans invented concrete, consisting of mortar, volcanic sand and rubble, which greatly contributed to the strength of Roman structures. Also, concrete can be given any shape. The walls of the latter were usually erected from concrete prepared with such a solution, and were revetted for decorative purposes with brick, stone, alabaster, porphyry or marbles. Although the character of Roman architecture, as it spread throughout the world known at that time, could not but be influenced by local building materials, nevertheless, concrete, in connection with brick or stone cladding, always remained the favorite material of the Romans, making it universal.

Climatic conditions. Climatically, Italy was divided into three parts. Northern Italy has a temperate Central European climate, Central Italy is warmer with a predominance of clear sunny days, and southern Italy is almost tropical.

The conditions are religious. The close connection of the religion of Ancient Rome with its state structure led over time to the fact that worship of God began to be supported by the ruling elite only for political reasons. The Emperor began to receive divine honors. Accordingly, it is precisely because the temple architecture bears the imprint of formality.

Socio-political conditions. In the early era, the peninsula was inhabited by three peoples. In the middle part, Etruria, the Etruscans lived – a people of probably Aryan origin, settled in Italy in prehistoric times and carried out a large building activity. There were so many Greek colonies in the south, this country was called Magna Graecia. The rest of Italy, excluding Cisalpine Gaul, was occupied by tribes that belonged to the same family as the Greeks.

The form of government in ancient Italy, as well as in Greece, consisted in the fact that cities and regions were combined with each other in unions. Rome was first ruled by elected kings, with the participation of the Senate and the People’s Assembly, but around 500 BC. The republican form of government was introduced, and in 27 BC, under Augustus, an empire arose.

Historical conditions. Roman civilization existed from the 8th century BC to the 5^th century AD. The founding year of Rome is considered 750 BC. The republic fought many successful wars and conquered several Etruscan cities, but in 390 BC was defeated by the Gauls, who continued to rule in northern Italy for a certain time. Around 343 BC, the conquest of Italy by Rome began, completed 60 years later.

Then the turn of wars with the peoples who lived outside Italy came.

The first Punic war between Rome and Carthage ended with the defeat of the Carthaginians and the transformation of Sicily into the first Roman province. The Second Punic War was the most difficult of all the Romans had fought so far. Carthaginian general Hannibal invaded Italy from Spain, defeated the entire Roman army sent to him and held out there until they attacked Carthage.

The Third Punic War ended with the complete destruction of Carthage, which was turned into a Roman province called Africa.

Periods of Ancient Roman Architecture:

1.Republican (late 6th – late 1st centuries BC) Houses of Pompeii and Herculaneum, Temple of Sibyl in Tivoli, Temple of Fortuna Virilis in Rome.

2. Imperial (end of the 1st century BC – 476 AD) Garda Bridge in Nimme; a complex of imperial forums (Trajan’s forum, etc.); Triumphal arches of Titus, Septimius Severus, Constantine; Flavian amphitheater (Colosseum) Pantheon; baths of the emperors Caracalla and Diocletian.

Features of the architecture of ancient Rome:

1. Large-scale urban planning;
2. Strictly organized city planning;
3. Forum – the center of public life in the capital;
4. Rationalism;
5. High level of engineering skills;
6. Development of civil architecture. Variety of types of structures;
7. Meeting the practical everyday and social needs of the masses;
8. Use of concrete structures;
9. The structures are simple, austere and stately.

Constructions of Ancient Rome:

The wall and arch in Roman architecture performed the main constructive function. The walls were erected from small, rough and cheap materials like brick, concrete and faced with marble. The Romans were the first to introduce the use of masses of broken stone bound with a solution using concrete. These walls had a rough, unfinished look.

The Romans used two main types of masonry: plank (quadratic), which was carried out dry, and concrete. Concrete masonry was of four types:

Opus incertum – facing with stones of irregular shape;

Opus reticulatum – faced with a square stone located diagonally at an angle of 45 degrees to the horizon.

Opus testaceum, a type of masonry in which the walls were laid with fired bricks, and concrete was poured between them.

Opus mixtum, masonry cladding with tuff linings.

Arch. The Romans needed a huge size, because, unlike the Greeks, they carried not so much spiritual bonds as the state system. Therefore, in order to solve this problem, they came up with one very important thing: if you build everything not from racks and beams, build a wooden template, lay out the fitted stones on it and close it all with a trapezoidal keystone, then when the template is removed, the structure stands. The Romans are actively introducing the arch, which is a revolutionary invention. The arched structure is more stable than the post-and-beam structure, because the arch works on the transmission of thrust forces to certain points: the hewn wedge-shaped stones rest on each other and consistently transfer the load coming from above to the neighboring segment until it passes into the supports. An important advantage of the arch, besides its stability, is the possibility of making it in large sizes.

In ancient Rome, the Roman or semicircular arch was widespread, it had the shape of a semicircle, the center of which was at the level of the arched heels.

Vault – a convex floor or covering that connects walls, supports of buildings, structures, bridges, etc. Vaults made it possible to overlap large spaces than the post-beam system allowed. The arch is formed by multiple repetitions of the arch along the horizontal axis.

Dome – a structure that overlaps round, polygonal and elliptical premises in the form of a vault, the inner surface of which is created by rotating a curve (arc, quarter circle, ellipse, etc.) around the vertical axis.

The architectural nature of the structures of Ancient Rome:

Holes played a leading role in the facades of Roman buildings. Their top was made rectangular, more often semicircular. A semicircular window often folded, divided into three gaps by two stone columns.

Large arches were often laid out on circles set at their heels on the ledges of the wall.

The vaults and domes were generally meticulously treated with caissons. Wooden floors were also installed.

A round cylindrical vault made of concrete and stone is the main form of the floor. The cross vault was also widespread, it was used to overlap structures that were square in plan. The circular structures were covered with a domed vault, and the polygonal structures were covered with closed vaults.

The roof was made of terracotta, like that of the Etruscans. Flat roofs of T-iron and concrete were installed, for example, over some of the large halls of Roman baths. Ceilings were often decorated with various geometric patterns – a combination of squares, rhombuses, octagons, etc.

The orders were used in connection with the arch, gradually losing their constructive meaning towards the decorative. The columns became pilasters. Orders were often placed one above the other and several tiers.

The columns were placed on pedestals to increase their height.

The Tuscan order had a smooth column without flutes and an uncomplicated entablature.

The Doric order was rarely used by the Romans. The Doric Column received a base. The Romans modified the abacus and echinus, altered the cornice by introducing a belt of teeth (dentikul) into it. All triglyphs were placed on the axes of the columns. Mutulas were usually placed only above triglyphs, their slope was insignificant.

The Ionian order had a capital, which often had volutes from all 4 sides. The entablatures are richer than in the Greco-Ionic order.

The Corinthian order was the favorite order of the Romans and was used for the largest temples. The acanthus leaves were softer.

The pillars of the columns were decorated with flutes.

The complex (composite) order was invented by the Romans and was found, as a rule, in the decoration of triumphal arches. The capital is a combination of Ionic (upper part) with Corinthian (lower part). The rest of the details are arranged according to the Corinthian model and are no less richly decorated.

The Romans were not strong in either sculpture or painting, but they appreciated Greek designs.

The vaults, the floor, were decorated with mosaics. Rich and beautiful effects were achieved by flooring and wall cladding with various marbles.

The first primitive frescoes appeared.

Characteristic were the spirally twisted acanthus branch with curls decorated with rosettes or figures of fantastic animals and birds.

Civil, so-called conventional architecture, was important for the Romans.

Types of ancient Roman structures:

• Temples
• Roads
• Bridges
• Forums
• Basilicas
• Theaters, amphitheaters
• Circus
• Tombs
• Aqueducts
• Baths
• Fountains

  Features of major Roman structures and their striking examples.

  Castrum. In the history of the development of urban planning in the era of the Roman Empire, castrum, the Roman camp, occupies an important place. Castrum was located on the strategically important roads of the empire. The camp had a square plan with four entrance gates. The main street, running east-west (decumanus), intersected with a street running north-south (cardo). At the intersection of the cardo and decumanus, a square called a forum was established.

   

   

   

  The Forum is an open-air square in the city center that served as both a marketplace and a meeting place. Usually the forum was surrounded by porticoes, colonnades, public buildings.

  Temples. Roman temples are the result of a combination of Greek and Etruscan architecture (podium plan and plinth). Roman temples were rectangular in plan and round.

   

  Rectangular Temples: in Rome: Temple of Fortuna Virilis, Temple of Mars Ultor, Temple of Concord, Temple of Jupiter Stator, Temple of Vespasian, Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, Temple of Venus and Roma, Temple of Saturn; in Athens: Temple of Jupiter Olympic; at Nimme Temple of Diana, Moison Carree; in Spalato: the Temple of Aesculapius; in Baalbek: Great Temple, Temple of Jupiter; in Palmyra: Great Temple of the Sun.

  Round Temples: in Rome: Mater Matuta Temple, Temple of Vesta; in Tivoli: the temple of Vesta; in Spalato: the Temple of Jupiter; in Baalbek: The Round Temple.

  The main type of the ancient Roman temple was a pseudo-peripter, on the side of which there was a forgiving portico. In addition to the entrance facade, the architraves were supported not only by colonnades, but also by walls. Entrance stairs were arranged between the two side walls at the entrance. The cella of a Roman temple usually occupied the entire width of the structure and was larger than in a Greek one. Since Roman temples can only be viewed from one point of view, usually from the side of the forum, the focus was on the solution of the front façade.

   

  The Pantheon or “Temple of All Gods”, built in Rome at the beginning of the 2nd century AD. The construction of the Pantheon was carried out in two periods.

  Part of it, namely the nymphaeum and the Etruscan-type temple with a ten-column portico, built by Agrippa (27 BC – 14 BC).

   

   

   

   

   

   

  The rotunda that exists today was erected under Hadrian (120 – 124 AD).

  Here, the first organic engineering and architectural solution for such a large centric interior space was found. The pantheon has a circular shape in plan, covered with a dome with a diameter of 43.3 m. The height of the building from the floor to the top of the dome is the same.

   

  In its upper part, there is a round illumination hole with a diameter of five meters.

   

   

  The inner surface of the dome is divided by five rows of caissons decreasing upward, this visibly increases the height of the entire room.

   

  The area of the Pantheon Hall is about 1500 square metres. The  temple was built using concrete, which has a frame of brick arches. The spacing of the dome is perceived by walls of enormous thickness – 6.3 m. The walls are concrete with brick slabs gaskets. They have eight large internal niches and as many external ones, thanks to which their mass was reduced by one third.

   

   

  The dome is made of concrete with a light stone aggregate – pumice. It is made up to the level of the fourth tier of caissons, of brick, enclosed in almost horizontal rows.

  In front of the rotunda there is an octostyle portico of the Corinthian order, with two columns behind the first, third, sixth and eighth. The interior has marble cladding.

   

   

  Roman residential architecture.

  The dwellings of the Romans are of three main types:

  1. A) domus or city manor house;
  2. B) villa – a country cottage;
  3. C) insula – a multi-storey city building.

  The premises in a Roman house are arranged in strict order on the sides of the main axis. The atrium was illuminated through a rectangular opening in the ceiling. On the slopes of the roof, rainwater flowed into this hole into the marble basin below it.

  Basilica. Basilicas in ancient Rome were called courtrooms or trading exchanges. The basilica is a rectangular room, the width of which is 2-3 times less than the length. The structure is divided lengthwise into an odd number of naves (3.5) by 2-4 rows of columns. The entrance was on the side or at one of the ends. At the opposite end was the court, located in the apse, which could be separated from the main part of the structure by a series of columns. In the course of the apse there were places for judges. In front of the apse there was an altar on which sacrifices were carried out before important decisions.

   

  The Basilica of Maxentius or Constantine in Rome is a three-nave basilica, covered with a huge cylindrical vault that is intersected by three transverse vaults of the same diameter, forming three cross vaults.

   

  Side aisles, covered with three cylindrical vaults, which rested on transverse walls, where there were longitudinal arches. The basilica had two apses to the north and west of the main nave.

   

   

  Thermes. The thermes were Roman public baths. Roman baths existed not so much to satisfy hygienic needs as they were the center of social life, satisfying the communicative needs of the Romans.

   

  Baths, as a rule, consisted of three parts: the central structure, where the baths were located, a vast open area, the outer circle of buildings.

  The central building was divided into:

  1) Tepidarium – a warm bath for relaxation;

  2) Caldarium – hot bath with hot water pool;

  3) Laconicum – sweat bath, hot round room covered with a dome;

  4) Frigidarium – a cool room with a swimming pool;

  5) Apodyterium – dressing room;

  6) Unctuarium – a room where bodies were rubbed with oils, lipsticks, sand, etc .;

  7) Spheristerium – a ball game room;

  8) Library;

  9) Theater.

   

  The main building was surrounded by an open area, with elevated seats for spectators, areas for walking and athletic exercises.

  The outer structures contained lecture halls, ekedras for delivering speeches, shops, water tanks, houses of slaves who served the baths, etc.

  Baths of Caracalla. Size (450 × 450 m), located on an artificially raised terrace, under which there were hotbeds of water heating.

  In their high southwestern part, a huge settling tank was built, it was connected to the Marcievo aqueduct, from which water was easily supplied along a slope to the tower building, shifted closer to the middle of the complex and no longer connected directly to the entrance.

   

  The main building (214 × 110 m) consisted of mirrored groups of vestibules, dressing rooms, massage places, palasters, lounges, bathing rooms, and steam rooms. From both sides they led to a round (35 m in diameter) calidarium with hot pools along the walls and a double row of windows under the dome, of the same type as the dome of the Pantheon. The main hall was the tepidarium, which was the center of the composition, around which the rest of the halls were grouped. The luxuriously finished interior contrasted with the simply designed exterior, which probably received a stucco finish.

   

   

   

  Theaters. Based on Greek theater, the Romans tailor it to their own needs:

  1. Space for Roman spectators did not go beyond the semicircle. It consisted of a series of concentric ledges connected by wide walkways and staircases to outer galleries.
  2. The semicircular square, where the seats for the senators were located, separated the stage and the seats of the spectators.
  3. The scene became taller, better processed, as it was the scene of the main action.
  4. Theaters could be located on a mountain slope or an artificial slope was created by a system of vaulted structures. In the vaulted corridors, the public could hide from the downpour.

   

  Amphitheaters. The amphitheaters were more in keeping with the character of the Romans and their love for more dynamic spectacles than theaters. Due to the peculiarities of these spectacles (gladiator fights, naumachias), seats for spectators surrounded the arena in a circle.

  Colosseum or Flavian amphitheater. Began to be built by Vespasian Flavius in 75 AD. It was completed at the end of the 1st century AD by his son Titus. In plan, the Colosseum is elliptical, 186 × 156 m.

   

   

  Three tiers of arcades dissect the facade of the building, ending in the fourth massive tier – an almost blank wall. The outer wall of each floor consists of 80 arched spans. The spans of the lower floor serve as entrances, ensuring uniform and quick filling or emptying of the room. The arches are connected with massive pillars hidden behind the warrant. The tectonics of the façade is simple but expressive: the first tier is an order arcade with the use of Doric half-columns, the second — Ionic half-columns, the third — Corinthian half-columns, the fourth — with a small opening, decorated with Corinthian pilasters. Orders are purely decorative. An important characteristic of the Colosseum is the number of articulations, but the repetitive system, nevertheless, does not seem monotonous. The seats for spectators were divided into four zones, reflecting their social status. Rooms for animals were located under the lower tiers. The arena of the Colosseum could be filled with water through special locks. Also, there was a canvas overlap.

   

   

   

   

   

   

   

  Circus. The purpose of the Roman circus was horse racing. From an architectural point of view, it is a Greek stadium adapted to these needs.

   

  Triumphal arches and columns.

  Triumphal arches. Triumphal arches were built by the Romans to glorify commanders and their military victories, as well as at the entrance to cities, on bridges, etc. Triumphal arches could have one or three spans. In the second case, the central one was made larger than the lateral ones. An attic was erected over the entablature. The decor of these arches was created by Corinthian columns, architectural decorations, statues, and bas-reliefs.

  Arch of Constantine in Rome was built to commemorate Constantine’s victory over Maxentius. It has harmonious proportions and luxurious decoration: the Corinthian order has a loosened entablature above each column, which is separate from the abutments. Above the attic there was a quadriga and statues.

   

   

  Victory columns. They had the same purpose as the triumphal arches.

  Trajan’s Column in Rome. The column is located on a square pedestal, on one side of which there are doors leading into the column, and the other three sides are decorated with sculptural plastic depicting trophies. Trajan’s Column has a Roman-Doric order. A spiral staircase is arranged inside the column. The bas-reliefs of the exterior emphasize its configuration and development.

   

  It probably symbolizes an unfolded scroll depicting episodes from Trajan’s campaign against the Dacians. From above, the column was crowned with a statue of the emperor, which would later be replaced with a statue of St. Peter.

   

   

  Roman tombs. Roman burial structures can be classified into five types:

  1) Columbarium – burial vaults, arranged in the dungeons. Niches were made in the walls where urns were located. A sarcophagus could also be placed in the columbarium.

  2) Monumental tombs are square or round tower-like structures that rise on a square pedestal, topped with a pyramidal top.

  3) Pyramidal tombs, in which the Egyptian influence is felt. They were built mainly of concrete, had a burial chamber inside, marble cladding, painted walls and vaults.

  4) Small gravestones. Consisted of two parts: ground and underground. The ground part served as a chapel, had a portico on the facade. In the underground part there were sarcophagi and niches for urns.

  5) Roman tombs in the East, could be made of bricks or hewn out of rock.

   

  Roman aqueducts. For the arrangement of aqueducts, the Romans used the hydraulic law of equilibrium of fluids in communicating vessels. Water was supplied from high places to city reservoirs.

  To deliver water to the city, almost horizontal aqueducts were made in the form of arched bridges, where channels of stone and concrete were placed.

   

  On the upper floors, the Romans carried water through vertical pipes from top to bottom, by natural pressure.

   

  Roman bridges. Because of the need to move quickly and efficiently, the Romans succeeded in building bridges. The Romans were rarely stopped by obstacles in the form of rivers, so they got used to crossing where they need to, and not where there is a natural opportunity for this. Roman bridges, based on an arched structure, were strong and simple.

  Fountains. Rome, neither ancient nor modern, cannot be imagined without water. The ancient Romans invented almost all types of fountains that exist today. In Rome, there were public fountains, which were a pool of water, stormy streams, or a combination of the two.

  Private fountains, located in the gardens and courtyards of private estates, were more plastically diverse, decorated with glass, mosaics, and sculptures.