Architecture of Ancient Egypt

Conditions for the emergence and development of architecture in Ancient Egypt.

1. Geographic conditions.Ancient Egypt was located in the northeastern part of the African continent.

A significant part of the territory was occupied by a sandy desert. Ancient Egypt had access to both the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, which promoted trade and cultural ties and accelerated the development of the state.

An important life-giving artery in Egypt was the Nile River, along the channel of which life was concentrated – the main cities and settlements were located. The Nile turned sandy soils into fertile fields during the flood and provided transport links. The floods of the Nile with a predicted frequency, the monotony of natural forms and the predominance of straight lines in the landscape formed an understanding of the world as something unshakable, stable and long-lasting.

2. Climatic conditions.This is a hot area with no sudden temperature fluctuations. Snow, frost, fog, even rain are rare. All residential and public architecture is geared towards protection from the heat.

3. Conditions for the choice of material. In the absence of timber, the main building material in Egypt was stone – limestone, sandstone, granite, syenite. The stone significantly influenced the nature of Egyptian architecture: it ensured its durability and was one of the reasons for the relative simplicity of architectural forms, due to the complexity of processing. The laying was carried out mainly without mortar. Strength was ensured by precise cutting of stone blocks and their tight fit to each other.

For the construction of structures, mud brick, clay, reed, etc. were used.

4. Religious conditions.Religious beliefs of Ancient Egypt had a close connection with architecture. In the religion of the ancient Egyptians, which was essentially henotheism, there are three leading cults:

1) the cult of nature (worship of the sun, earth, Nile, the cult of fertility)

2) the cult of the afterlife. Life is eternal and all activities are directed towards eternity.

The earthly life of the Egyptian was viewed only as a preparation for the afterlife, which could be hoped for if two conditions were met: a) preservation of the body; b) providing the dead with everything necessary for the afterlife.

Accordingly, the dwelling was considered as a temporary structure, and the tomb was a permanent dwelling, which was given more importance in architectural terms.

3) the cult of the pharaoh, who was considered the hypostasis of God on earth, by whose will all life processes take place.

5. Socio-political conditions. The centralized despotic form of government, the cheapness of numerous labor forces contributed to the creation of huge monumental structures.

Features of the architectural character of Ancient Egypt:

1. Monumentalism, greatness;
2. Dominance of architecture over the landscape;
3. Large ensemble compositions;
4. Simplicity of geometrized forms, which are reincarnated under the influence of lighting;
5. Development of the composition along the longitudinal axis;
6. Symmetry;
7. Symbolism – everything, from the location of the structure on the ground to the details, has a symbolic meaning;
8. Eternity;
9. Canonicality – every successful find is fixed and invariably repeated over the centuries;
10. Contrast (big and small, light and dark, etc.);
11. Synthesis of arts with complete subordination of painting and sculpture to architecture.

Historical periods of Ancient Egypt and the main buildings.

Pre-dynastic period (4 thousand BC). Mostly residential architecture was built.

Early kingdom (30 – 28 century BC). Tomb of Queen Her-Neith in Saqqara.

Ancient Kingdom (28 – 24 century BC) – tombs in Abydos, Burial complex of Pharaoh Djoser, pyramids in Medum and Dahshur, pyramids complex in Giza.

Middle Kingdom (21 – 18 centuries BC) – humble chambers in Beni Hasan, the memorial temple of Mentuhotep I in Deir el-Bahri, the memorial temple of Amenemkhet I in Lisht.

New Kingdom (16 – 11 century BC) – the funeral temple of Queen Hatshepsut, the Temple of Amun in Karnak, the Temple of Amun in Luxor Temple of Ramses II in Abu Simbel

Late period (11 – 332 r. BC). Temple of Shesonka in Tanis, tomb of Psusenes, tomb of Osorkon II, tomb of priest Pednamoneminetu.

Architectural samples of Ancient Egypt:

Ancient Egyptian Sphinxes are stone sculptures of a reclining lion with the head of a man, a hawk, a ram or other sacred animal, the purpose of which remains a mystery.

Obelisks are monumental pillars, square in cross section, which are thinner at the top and have a pyramidal ending. The obelisk is about ten times its width. All faces are covered with hieroglyphs.

Tombs

By their nature, the ancient Egyptian tombs were similar to the ancient Egyptian dwelling and repeated its arrangement.

In its evolution, the ancient Egyptian tomb went through several stages:

Mastaba → stepped tomb → classic tomb → rock tomb.

A simple, architecturally designed tomb is considered to be a mastaba, consisting of two parts – ground, which in shape resembles a truncated pyramid, faced with brick, contains a chapel (1); underground, where there is a burial chamber (3) with a sarcophagus and a serdab (the location of the pharaoh statues), to which a mine leads (2)

Such tombs are mostly of the same type and differ only in size, which symbolized the social status of the deceased.

The stepped tomb appears in the Old Kingdom period from the desire to increase the structure vertically. It has a similar structure. Temple structures begin to perform the prayer function in the context of the memorial complex of the tomb, and the pyramid performs the funeral function. Thus, the pyramid was the compositional center.

A stepped pyramid develops from the form of a mastab, as if, decreasing, is replicated vertically.

The pyramid is rectangular at the base, oriented to the cardinal points. The entrance to it was hidden, but traditionally it was in the north – from the side of the North Star.

Classical pyramid. The classical pyramid has a correct shape – ledges disappear, a square is at the base, the burial chamber moves into the body of the pyramid. The rock tomb, carved into the rock, exists mainly during the Middle and New Kingdoms. The emergence of tombs of this type is associated with the transfer of the capital from Memphis to Thebes, where the relief was not flat but rocky. Also, frequent robberies of tombs prompted to hide them from prying eyes. At this time, the memorial ensemble changes, now the memorial temple becomes the center of the composition, and the tomb itself is masked.

Temples of Ancient Egypt:

By design, the temples of Ancient Egypt were:

• Memorial – those that are located at the tombs associated with the funeral cult (the upper and lower temples in the ensemble of pyramids).
• Temples dedicated to the gods – have nothing to do with the tomb (Temple of Amun in Luxor and Temple of Amun in Karnak).

By location on the ground:

1) Ground – located on a plain, open area;

2) Rocky – temples, carved into the rocks (Temple of Ramses II).

3) Half-rock – a combined type of temple, part of which was located on an open surface, and part of which went deep into the rock (Memorial Temple of Queen Hatshepsut).

Ancient Egyptian order.

The Egyptian order dates back to the era of the Old Kingdom.

There are two main groups of columns that existed in Ancient Egypt at different times:

Geometrically correct supports are simple, in section they have a geometric shape. They could be of the following types:

1) A column of square section;

2) Columns in the form of a faceted cylinder with 8, 16 flat surfaces and flutes;

3) Columns in the form of a cylinder tapering towards the top, usually with flutes, but without entasis.

The iconic columns are decorative and are stylized stone forms that mimic the local flora. They were in the era of the New Kingdom. The pillars of the columns were located on discs and followed one plant stem or their bundle.

The main types of this variety, in accordance with the shape of the capital, are:

1) Papyrus-like

1. a) with an open flower;
2. b) with a closed flower.

2) Lotus-like

3) Palm-like

4) Gatoric – a column with an anthropomorphic capital, depicting the goddess of the sky Gathor.

In general, the Egyptian columns were quite massive, their height was rarely more than 6d.

The entablature of the inner colonnades is limited only by the architrave, the architrave and the cornice constitute the entablature of the outer colonnades.

Architecture of Ancient Egypt in the Predynastic Period.

1. The simplest types of housing: awnings, tents;
2. Residential buildings made of clay and raw bricks: oval in plan, with adobe floors, below the entrance, the roof is a reed mat.
3. Reed and wood structures. The walls were woven from branches and covered with clay.
4. In the Eneolithic times, judging by the clay model of the house from al-Amri, there were rectangular structures in plan, the walls of which, expanding towards the base, received a slight slope, which contributed to the stability of the building. The holes were covered with a mat. The roof was flat.

House model from El Amra

Early Kingdom architecture

The main types of buildings in the Early Kingdom were residential and religious buildings. The first of them got destroyed due to fragile materials (clay, raw brick, reed).

The most common type of religious buildings in the Early Kingdom was tombs. They represented a pit, on top of which an embankment was made of ground and pebbles. To fix it, the embankment began to be coated with silt and covered with bricks, which gave it a more regular shape.The size of the tomb depended on the social status of the deceased. The moguls had several chambers, covered with logs, on top of which were stone slabs.

The tombs of the pharaohs reached impressive sizes, which made them different from the tombs of the nobles, had more chambers, some of which were reserved for storerooms.

In the period of the Early Kingdom, in addition to the tombs, the construction of the cenotaph begins.

Cenotaph is a false tomb that does not contain the body of the deceased. The reasons for the emergence of structures of this type and the main purpose of the cenotaph remains unknown. It is believed that when the robberies of ancient Egyptian burials became more frequent (as the Egyptians left many valuables to the deceased), the cenotaph distracted the robbers from the main burial.

Another hypothesis for the origin of cenotaph is associated with the rite of cheb-sed.

With the development of civilization, physical murder was replaced by ritual murder, where the statue of the pharaoh was a symbol of murder and rebirth, which, nevertheless, needed a tomb – a cenotaph.

The architecture of the Old Kingdom.

Key Features:

1. A protodoric column appears.
2. The idea of a pyramid-shaped tomb appears.
3. The main proportions and ratios are produced.
4. A typical burial ensemble crystallizes, it consists of a pyramid and two interconnected temples.
5. The general architectural character is monumental, static.

During the period of the Old Kingdom, a pyramid appears as a special form of the pharaoh’s tomb. It was at this time that the grandiose pyramids were being built. The Egyptian pyramids are the only one of the seven wonders of the world that has survived to this day.

The very first structure of this type is considered to be the step pyramid of Djoser in Saqqara.

Architect: Imhotep.

The ensemble is located on a rectangular terrace (545 X 240 m), the architectural dominant of which is the pyramid. The ensemble had only one entrance, designated by two towers. A gallery with a protodoric colonnade was located further away.

The ensemble included structures that were used in the rite of cheb-sed, a cenotaph, which was rather unusually erected within the same complex with a pyramid, chapels, the South and North palaces of Djoser, the burial temple and others.

Djoser’s pyramid was six-step, rectangular in plan (109.2X121m), and had a height of 60 m.

It is known that the construction was carried out in several stages, the starting point was the mastaba.

The search for a pyramid shape is reflected in the tombs of Pharaoh Sneferu.

Pharaoh Sneferu had three tombs. The stepped pyramid in Medum, the pyramid in Dakhshur and the “Pink” pyramid.

Of great interest is the “Broken” pyramid of Sneferu in Dakhshur, which is considered a transitional form from a stepped pyramid to a classical one.

The only volume of the pyramid is divided into two unequal parts – a massive pedestal, and a lightweight upper tier. This form was created by putting mastaba on mastaba, followed by filling the gaps between them with small stones and facing.

The “broken” pyramid of Sneferu was the dominant feature of the memorial ensemble, consisting of a pyramid and two memorial temples – Lower and Upper, connected to each other.

It is the ensemble of the Dakhshur pyramid of Sneferu that will be taken as the basis for the construction of all the funeral ensembles of the 4th dynasty.

The third, “Pink” pyramid of Sneferu (h – 100m., 215X220) had smooth edges and was most likely his real tomb.

Necropolis of Giza

The Giza complex includes three ensembles – the ensemble of the pyramids of Cheops, Khafren and Mikerin. The Egyptian names of these pharaohs (Khufu, Khafra, Menkaur) testify to a solar cult.

The squares of the bases of the pyramids lie on one axis, passing 45̊̊̊ to the base, located by analogy with the stars from Orion’s belt.

The earliest and largest pyramid of the Giza necropolis is the pyramid of Cheops (Khufu). Height – 146.59 m, base side length – 233 m.

Architect: Hemiup.

The pyramid ensemble included two funeral temples connected by an ascent road, premises for the sacred boats of the pharaoh, three smaller pyramids (probably, those of the wife and daughters of Cheops), and other structures, the purpose of which is still unknown.

For the first time in the history of Egyptian architecture, free-standing pillars appeared in the temple of Cheops.

The ensemble of the Khafre pyramid includes two temples – Upper and Lower, united by a gallery, a small pyramid with a female burial on the south side, the Great Sphinx and a temple at the paws of the Sphinx.

The Great Sphinx is a huge sculpture carved from natural rock, some parts of which are complemented by stonework. Length – 73.5; width – 19.3; height – 20.22 m.

It is known that the pyramids initially had a smooth, polished lining. The pyramid of Khafre is the only one that partially preserved it.

The ensemble of the pyramid of Mikerin, in addition to itself, includes two temples (the Upper one has not survived) and three female burials on the south side.

Middle Kingdom architecture

Main features:

1. Reducing the scale of structures.
2. Complications of architectural composition.
3. Rejection of the pyramids as burial structures.
4. Refusal from monumental construction and return to raw brick.
5. Development of burial structures in the rocks.
6. The combination of a temple and a tomb within the same structure
7. Strengthening the role of the interior.

Due to a number of historical reasons (devastation of the treasury through huge construction, civil strife, the collapse of Ancient Egypt into nomes), the construction of the Middle Kingdom was not as grandiose as in the Old Kingdom.

The capital was transferred from Memphis to Thebes, where during the reign of Mentuhotep I it was possible to unite the country. The dominant type of burial during this period was the rock tomb.

Pyramids, as the embodiment of the idea of absolute power, were built, but they were insignificant in size. The room above the burial chamber begins to perform the function of the temple at the pyramid. The planning was driven by the desire to combine the relief and the canonical tomb. Attempts to combine a tomb and a memorial temple in one building was an important feature of the architecture of the Middle Kingdom.

The most famous landmark embodying the architectural quest of this period is the tomb-temple of Mentuhotep I in Deir el-Bahri. It is located on a rocky area on the western bank of the Nile, where necropolises were traditionally built; it was symbolic, since the west is the place where the sun ended its journey, “died”, the Egyptians associated it with death.

The structure, partially carved out of the rock (sanctuary), is located at different levels, had two terraces, the ascent to which was carried out along a ramp. The main facade is accented with a portico. Above – an open courtyard, a columned hall. Everything was crowned with a pyramid. But this pyramid is devoid of funeral functions and is more of a monument, symbolizing greatness. The very tomb of Mentuhotep I was located under the hypostyle hall.

New Kingdom architecture

Main features:

1. Pylon temple as the dominant architectural type,
2. The architectural character of the temple of the New Kingdom is due to the design of the movement of the masses of people;
3. Location of temple spaces along the longitudinal axis;
4. Deep composition;
5. Magnificence and decorativeness of architectural forms.

During the period of the New Kingdom, Egypt turns into a powerful state, which, seeking to consolidate its power, established and promoted the only religious cult – the cult of the god Amun-Ra.

The new architecture was driven by a religious and mythological ideology. The procession becomes an important ritual action, respectively, the architecture of the temple is perceived in motion and unfolds in time, in contrast to the architecture of the Old Kingdom, where the ensemble gave the impression of something static, complete.

The structure of the pylon temple

The composition of the temple is symbolic and is a reflection of the movement of the Sun-Ra in Nile. Here it is reflected in the spatial structure of the temple. The Egyptians believed that the God of the Sun – Ra floats in a boat along the heavenly Nile – from morning to evening and along the underground night Nile – from evening to morning.

At night, many dangers await him: Ra entered into battles with the guards of 12 gates located on the way. At the end of the journey, Ra had to fight against serpent Apophis, the victory over which marked the exit of the sun god into the heavenly Nile and the beginning of a new day.

This idea of an obstacle path underlies the structure of the pylon temple. Its reflection is embodied in the enfilade composition of the temple – the stringing of the premises on one axis, which is designed for the constant dynamics of impressions.

The pylon temple had the following structure:

Avenue of Sphinxes → obelisks → pylons → restyling hall → hypostyle hall → boat hall → sanctuary.

Its architecture begins long before the building itself from the alley of the sphinxes, associatively referring to the alleys of menhirs. Sphinxes were deliberately created the same, because their task is to direct the movement to the temple through uniform rhythmic repetition.

The avenue of the sphinxes led to the pylons – massive, trapezoidal towers, between which there was a disproportionately narrow entrance. This architectural character was aimed at stopping the movement, because the ancient Egyptian temple did not provide for the stay of believers and joint services in it, as is embodied in the composition. Here, the techniques of perspective narrowing and perspective reduction of illumination are used – with each new stage (new room), the temple is designed to narrow and darken, in comparison with the previous room. In the direction of movement towards the sanctuary, the roof is lowered and the floor is raised.

The Avenue of Sphinxes, which generates movement, and the pylons that stop it, form a significant contrast. In front of the pylons there were obelisks – symbolic rays of the sun embodied in stone. Behind the pylons, a restoring hall opens – an open-air courtyard, along the perimeter of which there are columns. This space is more narrowed and darkened than the alley of the sphinxes.

The re-styling hall transitions into a hypostyle hall – a multi-column hall with overlapping (even more narrowing and darkening).

Here, pictorial columns were used; in them, the local flora was recognized, it reproduced the forest in stone. The ceiling murals, which were painted blue and had images of stars, testify to an attempt to simulate the night on the Nile.

The Hypostyle Hall is also very important from a constructive point of view: the columns of the central part are massive and higher, so the ceiling in this part rises in comparison with the side parts. This constructive solution made it possible to construct light openings at the difference in heights and solve the lighting problem, had a significant impact on the development of architecture, having received the name “basilical section”.

Along the hypostyle hall was the boat hall, which was a cramped dark room. The last room of the temple for which it was built was the sanctuary – the smallest and darkest room without skylights. The greatest relics of the temple were kept there. The greatest relics of the temple were kept there.

Contrasts between large and small, wide and narrow, light and dark are designed to create the necessary atmosphere of the mystery of religious awe.

This type of temple served as the canon for the construction of the temples of the New Kingdom.

Karnak Temple

Located on the east bank of the Nile. Construction began in the era of the Middle Kingdom and acquired its greatest scope during the period of the New Kingdom. It was not designed according to a single plan, being a group of projects implemented at different times by more than one generation of pharaohs. The construction was carried out from the depth to the entrance – that is, from the sanctuary to the pylons.

The structure of the temple of Amun at Karnak repeats the canonical structure of the pylon temple. It is a quadrangular structure (530x 515x 530 X610).

Karnak temple is combined with Luxor Sphinx Alley.

Temple of Amun in Luxor

The Luxor temple was built during the time of Amenhotep III and Ramses IV. An attempt to reproduce the canon can be traced in a symmetrical composition and enfilade arrangement of premises, but the main axis got broken, since it was necessary to combine buildings of different times. Therefore, the courtyard of Ramses II does not lie on the main axis. The Hypostyle Hall is almost absent – there is a large colonnade, which has never been overgrown with columns.

Nowadays, in front of the entrance to the temple, only one obelisk rises. Another, donated to the French, adorns the Place de la Concorde in Paris.

Memorial temple of Queen Hatshepsut

The new kingdom was distinguished by a tendency to separate the temple and the tomb in order to protect the latter from plunder. The memorial temple of Queen Hatshepsut is half-rock. As in ground-based temples, the location of the premises along the axis is preserved here; the technique of perspective reduction of illumination is also used. It is a series of tiers of terraces, connected by a ramp leading to the rocks. Each terrace has an open courtyard, covered rooms with columns, porticoes and a sanctuary that goes into the thickness of the cliff. Gatoric and protodoric columns were used here.

Temple complex in Abu Simbel

The temple complex in Abu Simbel includes two temples: the Big Temple – the Temple of Ramses II and the Small Temple – dedicated to his wife Nefertari.

The structure is an example of a rock temple – all rooms are inside the rock, but they repeat the planning of the temples of the New Kingdom.

Big temple. The facade is facing east. On the sides are two seated portrait statues of Ramses II, carved out of the rock, like the temple.

Small temple, Nefertari temple, has a facade designed in the form of a portal. A group of sculptures of statues of Ramses and one of Nefertari are placed in large niches. The Hypostyle Hall is decorated with columns with gatoric capitals.

In the 1960s, due to the construction of a reservoir, these temples were moved 200 m further from the river.

The influence of the architecture of Ancient Egypt on the further development of world architecture:

1. Obelisk as the most widespread form of memorial monument;
2. Large monumental ensemble compositions;
3. Enfilade development of the composition;
4. Restyling yard;
5. Basilical incision;
6. Development of the order system;
7. Synthesis of arts in the architectural and spatial environment.